BACKGROUNDER-NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME
INDO-US NUCLEAR DEAL AND INDIAN SCENARIO
MRITYUNJAY BOSE
Energy is something that the country needs. With fossil fuels depleting fast, the world needs alternate energy sources that are cheap, clean and easily available. The two options are nuclear energy and renewable sources. Of the two, nuclear energy is commercially matured and established technology. In the near future, the world will increasingly look at nuclear energy for power needs. A long history of successful nuclear energy generation has finally laid the fear of nuclear holocaust to rest. In fact in India, the future lies in nuclear power generation and this is the spirit of the recent Indo-US nuclear deal. Through a three-stage process, India wants to achieve a target of 20,000 MW by 2020.
Also the pointed to be noted here is that Thorium is in abundance in India while Uranium is scarce. At this stage comes the Indo-US nuclear deal – which would help India access to other sources for its fuel, provided it is for peaceful purposes. However, the opposition to the ‘Agreement for Cooperation Between the Government of India and the Government of United States of America Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy’.
India stands to gain much from the nuclear deal – as it is the first-of-its-kind offered by the US to any country. It gives access to the all powerful 45-member Nuclear Suppliers Group’ (NSG) to procure Uranium from international resources, but it would have to work out an India-specific safeguard from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India’s past (read nuclear tests) and not signing the NPT or the CTBT keep away from harnessing the international sources of nuclear programme. As a matter of fact, the deal would end India’s isolation as far as scientific projects in the nuclear arena is concerned paving way for more international cooperation.
But before understanding the deal, one must understand the concept of India’s nuclear programme first envisaged by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL).
INDIA's NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME:
The NPCIL aims to produce 20,000 MWe by 2020. This is in a way the mission statement of the nuclear power sector of the country. Energy security is an issue of vital importance, particularly in the context of the accelerating pace of our economic growth. If we succeed in instituting an optimal mix of energy resources in which nuclear energy is an important component, we will be able to ensure our energy security.
In view of this resource position of Thorium and Uranium, the DAE has chalked out a three-stage programme which aims at the development of PHWRs that uses natural Uranium as fuel (Stage-I), FBR that used Plutonium and depleted Uranium fuel (Stage-II) and AHWR that would use Thorium and Uranium-233 as fuel (Stage-III). The PHWR-based power programme has attained commercial maturity. The 220 MWe PHWR has been standardized at 540 MW, which has now been scaled upto 700 MWe. Self reliance has been achieved in the whole ambit of PHWR technology, and associated fuel cycle, starting from mining and ore-processing, fuel fabrication, fuel reprocessing and waste management besides production of heavy water.
This is because of the fact that India has plenty of Thorium, but Uranium is scarce. India’s Uranium resources – about 0.8 per cent of the world – cannot contribute to any significant improvement in the situation if Uranium is to be used once-through basis and then disposed off as waste. However, with a careful planned programme, the available Uranium can be used to harness the energy contained in non-fissile Thorium, of which India possesses 32 per cent of the world’s resources. The first stage of this programme involves using indigenous Uranium in PHWRs, which efficiently produces energy as well as Plutonium. In the second stage, by reprocessing the spent nuclear fuel and using recovered Plutonium in FBRs, the non-fissile depleted Uranium and Thorium can breed additional fissile nuclear fuel, Plutonium and Uranium-233, respectively. In the third stage, Thorium and Uranium-233 based nuclear reactors can meet long-term energy demands.
Under its endeavour to develop FBR technology, the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), has commissioned its Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) at Kalpakkam. Mixed carbide fuel was developed and fabricated indigenously. The fuel has attained burn-up of 1,10,000 MW day/tonne which is much above the set target. With the success of FBTR, the IGCAR has earmarked on development of 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.
Towards utilization of thorium, the successful endeavour made by DAE includes Kamini reactor operating at Kalpakkam. This reactor uses Uranium-233 as fuel produced from Thorium. An Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is also being developed at Trombay, that will use Thorium oxide fuel, light water coolant and heavy water as moderator.
ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
· Apart from advantages of security of supply and environmental friendliness, nuclear power is economically competitive.· Nuclear power plants in operation are supplying electricity at competitive tariffs.· Taking into account the cost of transportation of coal and the present level of capital costs, nuclear power is competitive with coal-based power at locations, about 800 to 1,000 kms away from coal mines. · By reducing the capital cost and improving the plant performance, nuclear power could be made competitive at lesser distance from coal mines.· Considering future deployment of clean coal technologies for reducing green house gas emission from power generation, relative economic competitiveness of nuclear power would further improve.
FUTURE COURSE
Shift to large scale construction programme on Fast Reactors and their associated fuel cycles as early as possible as the full potential of PHWRs will be reached in another few years. Develop fuel cycles with short doubling time.
Demonstrate technologies for large scale Thorium utilisation.Develop technologies to support faster growth of Thorium systems.Develop technologies for co-generation of electricity, hydrogen and water. Work on fusion technologies.
FUEL CYCLES
The nuclear power programme has a number of ancilliary operations, which form part of the nuclear fuel cycle.
The Front-End of the cycle include mineral exploration, mining, milling and processing of ore, and fabrication of fuel and the Back-End of the cycle covers reprocessing of depleted Uranium fuel, and management of nuclear waste. India has acquired comprehensive capability in the PHWR design, construction and operation of associated plants/facilities covering the entire fuel cycle of nuclear power programme based on PHWRs. This include the production of heavy water. The DAE organisations contributing to the Front-End of the nuclear fuel cycle programme are the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration (AMD), Hyderabad, Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL), Jaduguda, Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), Hyderabad, while Heavy Water Board (HWB), Mumbai, BARC, and IGCAR.
Heavy water is the most important tool in PHWR and is used as a moderator and coolant. The HWB is responsible for building and operation of heavy water plants. To meet the heavy water requirement of the PHWR type nuclear power and research reactors eight heavy water plants were constructed at Nangal (Punjab), Baroda (Gujarat), Talcher (Orissa), Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Hazira (Gujarat), Thal (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan) and Manuguru (Andhra Pradesh). The Nangal plant owned by the National Fertilizers Ltd has been decomissioned in 2002. Self sufficiency has been attained in production of heavy water and it has been exported to South Korea and China as well.
To delink ammonia based heavy water plants from the fertilizer plants, the board has developed an energy efficient ammonia water Front-End technology which is being deployed at the Baroda plant. For upgrading degraded heavy water from research reactors, a heavy water upgrading facility was set up at Trombay in 1962. The Hyderabad-based AMD has located Uranium deposit in Domiasiat, Meghalaya. Sizeable uranium deposits have also been located at Wahkyn in Meghalaya, Lambapur-Yellapur and Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh, Turamdih, Bagjata, Kanyaluka and Mohuldih in Jharkhand and Jajawal in Madhya Pradesh, and Rohil-Ghateshwar, Rajasthan, and Gogi in Karnataka. Significant Uranium mineralisation has been identified at Koppunuru and Gandi in Andhra Pradesh, including new potential heavy minseal zones along the coastal tracts of Jagatsinghpur distrist in Orissa and inland placers in Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu.
The exploratory efforts of AMD, over the period of time have led to opening of uranium mines in Jaduguda, Bhatin and Nawrapahar, all in Singhbhum (East) in Jharkhand. These mines, operated by the UCIL, has been meeting the needs of the nuclear power programme. UCIL also operates a Uranium Mill for processing uranium ores to produce yellow cake, which is further sent to NFC for fabrication. The nuclear fuel fabrication for power reactors and research reactors is done respectively at the NFC and BARC. In the development of new fuels, BARC and IGCAR are engaged. At the NFC, the seamless calandria tubes for the 540 MWe PHWR has also been successfully manufactured. At BARC a wide variety of fuels have been developed and fabricated on industrial scale. For fabrication of indigenous mixed oxide (MOX) fuel assemblies for BWRs at TAPS, the Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (AFFF) was set up at BARC.
As far as the Back-End is concerned, the Indian programme is based on a closed-cycle approach that involves reprocessing of the spent fuel and recycle of Plutonium-239 and Uranium-233 for power generation. To take care of the wastes, Waste Immobilisation Plants (WIPs) are in operation at Tarapur and Trombay and a similar plant is under construction at Kalpakkam.
VERY SAFE!
The global nuclear industry with more than 430 operating reactors, having more than 8,000 reactor years of operational time, has produced just one serious accident with not a very large number of casualties immediately or even after many years of the accident.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SEPARATION PLAN:
India will identify and offer for IAEA safeguards 14 thermal power reactors between 2006-14. There are 22 thermal power reactors in operation or currently under construction in the country. Fourteen of these will be placed under safeguards by 2014 in a phased manner. India will not accept safeguards on Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and Fast Breeder Test Reactor, both located in Kalpakkam.India has decided to place under safeguards all future civilian thermal power reactors and civilian breeder reactors, and the Government of India retains the sole right to determine such reactors as civilian. This means, India will not be constrained in any way in building future nuclear facilities, whether civilian or military, as per our national requirements. India has decided to permanently shut down CIRUS reactor, in 2010. The fuel core of the Apsara reactor that was purchased from France, will be shifted from its current location and make it available for placing under safeguards in 2010. Both CIRUS and Apsara are located inside the BARC. Reprocessing and enrichment capabilities and other facilities associated with the fuel cycle for our strategic programmes have been kept out of Separation Plan.India has received commitment from the US for reliable supply of fuel to India for reactors that will be offered for safeguards. To guard against disruption of fuel supplies, US has decided to take steps which include both the countries seeking to negotiated with the IAEA an India-specific fuel supply agreement. NATIONAL SECURITY:On May 18, 1974, India conducted a peaceful underground nuclear experiment at Pokhran in Rajasthan. Here, after 24 years, on May 11 and May 13, 1998, India successfully conducted five nuclear tests. These included a thermonuclear device, a fission device and three sub-kiloton devices. "The DAE is continuing implementation of necessary research and development as well as manufacturing activities to meet the national policy of credible minimum nuclear deterrence," according to a commemorative brochure released during 50 years of DAE. The national security programme is now affected by the deal – and Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh has promised this.
PRESENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS IN OPERATION
Tarapur Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x160 MW BWR
Tarapur Atomic Power Station 3&4 - 2x540 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 100, 200 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 3&4 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Madras Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 170, 220 MW PHWR
Narora Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kaiga Atomic Power Station 1,2&3 - 3x220 MW PHWR
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Kaiga Atomic Power Station 4 - 220 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 5&6 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kudunkulam Nuclear Power Project 1&2 - 2x1000 MW PWR
Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 1 - 500 MW FBR
Footnote:
BWR – Boiling Water Reactor
PHWR – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
PWR – Pressurised Water Reactor
FBR – Fast Breeder Reactor
AHWR – Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
WHAT THE INDO-US NUKE DEAL PROMISES:
Advanced nuclear energy research between India and US
Exchange visits of scientists and experts
Facilitate nuclear trade among themselves
US willing to help India in building strategic reserves
To help India negotiate with IAEA an India-specific fuel supply agreement
Extensive help in nuclear fuel cycle activities
Cooperation in environmental protection
To help in talks with NSG
MRITYUNJAY BOSE
Energy is something that the country needs. With fossil fuels depleting fast, the world needs alternate energy sources that are cheap, clean and easily available. The two options are nuclear energy and renewable sources. Of the two, nuclear energy is commercially matured and established technology. In the near future, the world will increasingly look at nuclear energy for power needs. A long history of successful nuclear energy generation has finally laid the fear of nuclear holocaust to rest. In fact in India, the future lies in nuclear power generation and this is the spirit of the recent Indo-US nuclear deal. Through a three-stage process, India wants to achieve a target of 20,000 MW by 2020.
Also the pointed to be noted here is that Thorium is in abundance in India while Uranium is scarce. At this stage comes the Indo-US nuclear deal – which would help India access to other sources for its fuel, provided it is for peaceful purposes. However, the opposition to the ‘Agreement for Cooperation Between the Government of India and the Government of United States of America Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy’.
India stands to gain much from the nuclear deal – as it is the first-of-its-kind offered by the US to any country. It gives access to the all powerful 45-member Nuclear Suppliers Group’ (NSG) to procure Uranium from international resources, but it would have to work out an India-specific safeguard from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India’s past (read nuclear tests) and not signing the NPT or the CTBT keep away from harnessing the international sources of nuclear programme. As a matter of fact, the deal would end India’s isolation as far as scientific projects in the nuclear arena is concerned paving way for more international cooperation.
But before understanding the deal, one must understand the concept of India’s nuclear programme first envisaged by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL).
INDIA's NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME:
The NPCIL aims to produce 20,000 MWe by 2020. This is in a way the mission statement of the nuclear power sector of the country. Energy security is an issue of vital importance, particularly in the context of the accelerating pace of our economic growth. If we succeed in instituting an optimal mix of energy resources in which nuclear energy is an important component, we will be able to ensure our energy security.
In view of this resource position of Thorium and Uranium, the DAE has chalked out a three-stage programme which aims at the development of PHWRs that uses natural Uranium as fuel (Stage-I), FBR that used Plutonium and depleted Uranium fuel (Stage-II) and AHWR that would use Thorium and Uranium-233 as fuel (Stage-III). The PHWR-based power programme has attained commercial maturity. The 220 MWe PHWR has been standardized at 540 MW, which has now been scaled upto 700 MWe. Self reliance has been achieved in the whole ambit of PHWR technology, and associated fuel cycle, starting from mining and ore-processing, fuel fabrication, fuel reprocessing and waste management besides production of heavy water.
This is because of the fact that India has plenty of Thorium, but Uranium is scarce. India’s Uranium resources – about 0.8 per cent of the world – cannot contribute to any significant improvement in the situation if Uranium is to be used once-through basis and then disposed off as waste. However, with a careful planned programme, the available Uranium can be used to harness the energy contained in non-fissile Thorium, of which India possesses 32 per cent of the world’s resources. The first stage of this programme involves using indigenous Uranium in PHWRs, which efficiently produces energy as well as Plutonium. In the second stage, by reprocessing the spent nuclear fuel and using recovered Plutonium in FBRs, the non-fissile depleted Uranium and Thorium can breed additional fissile nuclear fuel, Plutonium and Uranium-233, respectively. In the third stage, Thorium and Uranium-233 based nuclear reactors can meet long-term energy demands.
Under its endeavour to develop FBR technology, the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), has commissioned its Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) at Kalpakkam. Mixed carbide fuel was developed and fabricated indigenously. The fuel has attained burn-up of 1,10,000 MW day/tonne which is much above the set target. With the success of FBTR, the IGCAR has earmarked on development of 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.
Towards utilization of thorium, the successful endeavour made by DAE includes Kamini reactor operating at Kalpakkam. This reactor uses Uranium-233 as fuel produced from Thorium. An Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is also being developed at Trombay, that will use Thorium oxide fuel, light water coolant and heavy water as moderator.
ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
· Apart from advantages of security of supply and environmental friendliness, nuclear power is economically competitive.· Nuclear power plants in operation are supplying electricity at competitive tariffs.· Taking into account the cost of transportation of coal and the present level of capital costs, nuclear power is competitive with coal-based power at locations, about 800 to 1,000 kms away from coal mines. · By reducing the capital cost and improving the plant performance, nuclear power could be made competitive at lesser distance from coal mines.· Considering future deployment of clean coal technologies for reducing green house gas emission from power generation, relative economic competitiveness of nuclear power would further improve.
FUTURE COURSE
Shift to large scale construction programme on Fast Reactors and their associated fuel cycles as early as possible as the full potential of PHWRs will be reached in another few years. Develop fuel cycles with short doubling time.
Demonstrate technologies for large scale Thorium utilisation.Develop technologies to support faster growth of Thorium systems.Develop technologies for co-generation of electricity, hydrogen and water. Work on fusion technologies.
FUEL CYCLES
The nuclear power programme has a number of ancilliary operations, which form part of the nuclear fuel cycle.
The Front-End of the cycle include mineral exploration, mining, milling and processing of ore, and fabrication of fuel and the Back-End of the cycle covers reprocessing of depleted Uranium fuel, and management of nuclear waste. India has acquired comprehensive capability in the PHWR design, construction and operation of associated plants/facilities covering the entire fuel cycle of nuclear power programme based on PHWRs. This include the production of heavy water. The DAE organisations contributing to the Front-End of the nuclear fuel cycle programme are the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration (AMD), Hyderabad, Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL), Jaduguda, Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), Hyderabad, while Heavy Water Board (HWB), Mumbai, BARC, and IGCAR.
Heavy water is the most important tool in PHWR and is used as a moderator and coolant. The HWB is responsible for building and operation of heavy water plants. To meet the heavy water requirement of the PHWR type nuclear power and research reactors eight heavy water plants were constructed at Nangal (Punjab), Baroda (Gujarat), Talcher (Orissa), Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Hazira (Gujarat), Thal (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan) and Manuguru (Andhra Pradesh). The Nangal plant owned by the National Fertilizers Ltd has been decomissioned in 2002. Self sufficiency has been attained in production of heavy water and it has been exported to South Korea and China as well.
To delink ammonia based heavy water plants from the fertilizer plants, the board has developed an energy efficient ammonia water Front-End technology which is being deployed at the Baroda plant. For upgrading degraded heavy water from research reactors, a heavy water upgrading facility was set up at Trombay in 1962. The Hyderabad-based AMD has located Uranium deposit in Domiasiat, Meghalaya. Sizeable uranium deposits have also been located at Wahkyn in Meghalaya, Lambapur-Yellapur and Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh, Turamdih, Bagjata, Kanyaluka and Mohuldih in Jharkhand and Jajawal in Madhya Pradesh, and Rohil-Ghateshwar, Rajasthan, and Gogi in Karnataka. Significant Uranium mineralisation has been identified at Koppunuru and Gandi in Andhra Pradesh, including new potential heavy minseal zones along the coastal tracts of Jagatsinghpur distrist in Orissa and inland placers in Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu.
The exploratory efforts of AMD, over the period of time have led to opening of uranium mines in Jaduguda, Bhatin and Nawrapahar, all in Singhbhum (East) in Jharkhand. These mines, operated by the UCIL, has been meeting the needs of the nuclear power programme. UCIL also operates a Uranium Mill for processing uranium ores to produce yellow cake, which is further sent to NFC for fabrication. The nuclear fuel fabrication for power reactors and research reactors is done respectively at the NFC and BARC. In the development of new fuels, BARC and IGCAR are engaged. At the NFC, the seamless calandria tubes for the 540 MWe PHWR has also been successfully manufactured. At BARC a wide variety of fuels have been developed and fabricated on industrial scale. For fabrication of indigenous mixed oxide (MOX) fuel assemblies for BWRs at TAPS, the Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (AFFF) was set up at BARC.
As far as the Back-End is concerned, the Indian programme is based on a closed-cycle approach that involves reprocessing of the spent fuel and recycle of Plutonium-239 and Uranium-233 for power generation. To take care of the wastes, Waste Immobilisation Plants (WIPs) are in operation at Tarapur and Trombay and a similar plant is under construction at Kalpakkam.
VERY SAFE!
The global nuclear industry with more than 430 operating reactors, having more than 8,000 reactor years of operational time, has produced just one serious accident with not a very large number of casualties immediately or even after many years of the accident.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SEPARATION PLAN:
India will identify and offer for IAEA safeguards 14 thermal power reactors between 2006-14. There are 22 thermal power reactors in operation or currently under construction in the country. Fourteen of these will be placed under safeguards by 2014 in a phased manner. India will not accept safeguards on Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and Fast Breeder Test Reactor, both located in Kalpakkam.India has decided to place under safeguards all future civilian thermal power reactors and civilian breeder reactors, and the Government of India retains the sole right to determine such reactors as civilian. This means, India will not be constrained in any way in building future nuclear facilities, whether civilian or military, as per our national requirements. India has decided to permanently shut down CIRUS reactor, in 2010. The fuel core of the Apsara reactor that was purchased from France, will be shifted from its current location and make it available for placing under safeguards in 2010. Both CIRUS and Apsara are located inside the BARC. Reprocessing and enrichment capabilities and other facilities associated with the fuel cycle for our strategic programmes have been kept out of Separation Plan.India has received commitment from the US for reliable supply of fuel to India for reactors that will be offered for safeguards. To guard against disruption of fuel supplies, US has decided to take steps which include both the countries seeking to negotiated with the IAEA an India-specific fuel supply agreement. NATIONAL SECURITY:On May 18, 1974, India conducted a peaceful underground nuclear experiment at Pokhran in Rajasthan. Here, after 24 years, on May 11 and May 13, 1998, India successfully conducted five nuclear tests. These included a thermonuclear device, a fission device and three sub-kiloton devices. "The DAE is continuing implementation of necessary research and development as well as manufacturing activities to meet the national policy of credible minimum nuclear deterrence," according to a commemorative brochure released during 50 years of DAE. The national security programme is now affected by the deal – and Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh has promised this.
PRESENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS IN OPERATION
Tarapur Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x160 MW BWR
Tarapur Atomic Power Station 3&4 - 2x540 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 100, 200 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 3&4 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Madras Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 170, 220 MW PHWR
Narora Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station 1&2 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kaiga Atomic Power Station 1,2&3 - 3x220 MW PHWR
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Kaiga Atomic Power Station 4 - 220 MW PHWR
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 5&6 - 2x220 MW PHWR
Kudunkulam Nuclear Power Project 1&2 - 2x1000 MW PWR
Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 1 - 500 MW FBR
Footnote:
BWR – Boiling Water Reactor
PHWR – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
PWR – Pressurised Water Reactor
FBR – Fast Breeder Reactor
AHWR – Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
WHAT THE INDO-US NUKE DEAL PROMISES:
Advanced nuclear energy research between India and US
Exchange visits of scientists and experts
Facilitate nuclear trade among themselves
US willing to help India in building strategic reserves
To help India negotiate with IAEA an India-specific fuel supply agreement
Extensive help in nuclear fuel cycle activities
Cooperation in environmental protection
To help in talks with NSG
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